Lailatul Zerlina R (10.1.01.08.0138)
English Department
Faculty of Teacher Training and Education
University of Nusantara PGRI Kediri
Abstract
Pronunciation is a part of foreign language learning since it
directly affects learners' communicative competence as well as performance.
Limited pronunciation skills can decrease learners’ self-confidence, restrict
social interactions, and negatively affect estimations of a speaker’s
credibility and abilities. The current focus on communicative approaches to the
students of junior high school pronunciation learning and the concern for
building communication skills are renewing interest in the role that
pronunciation plays in the students overall communicative competence. The goals
of this paper are to identify the features of pronunciation, explain factors
affecting the learning of pronunciation, using Audiovisual to improve students
of junior high school in the first grade. The review of literature shows that
the student’s pronunciation can improve and supporting them in speaking and
reading skill by using audiovisual.
Key
words: pronunciation; features; factors; audiovisual
Introduction
One
of the primary goals of teaching pronunciation in any course is ―intelligible
pronunciation– not perfect pronunciation. Intelligible pronunciation is an
essential component of communicative competence (Morley, 1991). The attainment
of perfect pronunciation should no longer be the objective. Instead, Morley
calls for setting more realistic goals that are reasonable, applicable and
suitable for the communication needs of the learner. To Morley, the learner
needs to develop the ability to make oneself relatively easily understood, the
ability to meet the communication needs one faces, increased self-confidence,
and the speech monitoring abilities and speech modification strategies.
Therefore, it is vital that students learning English for international
communication learn to speak it as intelligibly and comprehensibly as possible
– not necessarily like natives, but well enough to be understood (Morley,
1991). It is equally important that they learn to understand it when spoken by
people with different accents speaking in natural conditions. In this respect,
and as Rajadurai (2001) suggests, part of the underlying philosophy of
including listening and speaking courses in any syllabus is to teach
pronunciation as an integral part of oral communication. The rationale is that
it is counterproductive to remove pronunciation from communication and other
aspects of language use.
So, with the emphasis on the importance of meaningful communication
and intelligible pronunciation, it is not enough to leave pronunciation
teaching and training to pronunciation classes only or even to
listening/speaking classes in some programs. Teachers can almost always squeeze
pronunciation into their classes by sheer cunning (Rajaduari, 2001) in order to
reinforce the concepts that might have been taught before in pronunciation
classes, increase awareness of the significance of pronunciation as an integral
part of the teaching of English as a second language, provide opportunities for
practice, and give encouragement and advice to learners as they work towards
intelligibility for use beyond the classroom. The aims of this paper are to
review the features of English pronunciation, elaborate factors affecting the
learning of English pronunciation, using Audiovisual to improve students of
junior high school in the first grade. The review of literature shows that the
student’s pronunciation can improve and supporting them in speaking and reading
skill by using audiovisual.
Theoretical Review
1.
Features Involved in English Pronunciation
As English increasingly becomes the language used for international
communication, it is vital that speakers of English, whether they are native or
non-native speakers, are able to exchange meaning effectively. In fact, in
recent discussions of English-language teaching, the unrealistic idea that
learners should sound and speak like native speakers is fast disappearing
(Burns, 2003). According to Burns (2003), it is more important that speakers of
English can achieve: • Intelligibility (the speaker produces sound patterns
that are recognisable as English) • Comprehensibility (the listener is able to
understand the meaning of what is said) • Interpretability (the listener is
able to understand the purpose of what is said). For example, a speaker might
say It’s hot today as IS ho day. This is unlikely to be
intelligible because of inaccurate sound, stress and intonation patterns. As a
result, a listener would not find the speaker comprehensible, because meaning
is not available. Because the speaker is incomprehensible, the listener would
also not be able to interpret the utterance as an indirect request to open the
window. Clear pronunciation is essential in spoken communication. Even where
learners produce minor inaccuracies in vocabulary and grammar, they are more
likely to communicate effectively when they have good pronunciation and
intonation (Burns, 2003).
As the figure above illustrates, pronunciation involves features
at:
-
The
segmental (micro) level
-
The
supra-segmental (macro) level.
In former ESL approaches, segmental features were the major focus
for pronunciation teaching (for example, minimal pairs such as ship/sheep).
While these features are important, more recent research has shown that when
teaching focuses on supra-segmental features, learners’ intelligibility is
greatly enhanced. It is important, therefore, to provide activities at both
levels (Burns, 2003).
1.1 Suprasegmental Features
Suprasegmental features relate to sounds at the macro level.
Advances in research have developed descriptions of the suprasegmental features
of speech extending across whole stretches of language (prosody). Unlike
languages such as Vietnamese or Mandarin which are tonal, English is
stress-timed and syllable-timed (for example, WHAT’s his addRESS?).
Jenkins (2002) emphasizes that effective communicative pronunciation competence
can be achieved more through improving supra-segmental production in preference
to segmentals. Linking, intonation and stress are important features for
effective pronunciation at the suprasegmental level (Burns, 2003).
1.1.1 Linking
Linking refers to the way the last sound of one word is joined to
the first sound of the next word. To produce connected speech, we run words
together to link consonant to vowel, consonant to consonant, and vowel to
vowel. We also shorten some sounds and leave others out altogether.
-
consonant
to vowel an _Australian _animal
-
consonant
to consonant next _week; seven _months
-
vowel
to vowel.
Some sounds such as r, w and j (y) are
inserted to link adjacent words ending and beginning with a vowel: where (r_
) are you?; you (w_ ) ought to; Saturday (y_ )
evening
-
sounds
that are shortened. When words begin with an unstressed sound they are often
pronounced as a short schwa ( ) sound: when do they arrive?; five
o’clock
-
sounds
that are left out. Some sounds are so short that they virtually disappear
(become elided): does (_h)e like soccer? we might as well (h_a)ve
stayed at home
1.1.2 Intonation
Intonation can be thought of as the melody of the language – the
way the voice goes up and down according to the context and meanings of the
communication. For example, note the differences in:
-
Can
you take the scissors? (rising pitch) – request
-
Can
you take the scissors (falling pitch) – command
1.1.3 Word stress
Word stress relates to the prominence given to certain words in an
utterance. These focus words are stressed (made long and loud) to convey:
-
the
overall rhythm of the utterance
-
the
most meaningful part of the utterance. At the meaning level, some words are
given more prominence than others to foreground which meaning is important. For
example, compare:
-
Can
YOU take the scissors? (not someone else)
-
Can
you take the SCISSORS! (not the knife)
Recent approaches to teaching pronunciation in computer-based
contexts follow the communicative approach in teaching pronunciation. Harmer
(1993) stresses the need for making sure that students can always be understood
and say what they want to say. They need to master ―good pronunciation‖, not
perfect accents. That is, emphasis should be on suprasegmental features of
pronunciation—not segmental aspects—to help learners acquire com-municative
competence (Seferoglu, 2005). Bott (2005) asserts, ―In recent years, increasing
attention has been placed on providing pronunciation instruction that meets the
communicative needs of non-native speakers (NNSs) of English.Empirical research
and pronunciation materials’ writers suggest that teaching suprasegmentals
before segmentals to intermediate and advanced NNSs could be more beneficial in
a shorter period of time (p. 5). Seferoglu (2005) aimed to find out whether
integrating accent reduction software in advanced English language classes at
the university level results in improvements in students’ pronunciation at the
segmental and suprasegmental levels, finding that the experimental group that
followed instruction which integrated the use of accent reduction software in a
multimedia language laboratory outperformed the control group which followed
traditional instruction. Based on the results of this study, it was found that
technology has a lot to offer in pronunciation learning, and EFL learners may
be provided with exposure and practice/interaction opportunities in the target
language through specifically designed software programs.Cheng (1998) reported
that teachers should choose meaningful material to be used as models for
practicing pronunciation aspects such as stress. Morley (1991) also recommended
giving detailed attention to supra-segmental features of pronunciation and
their functions in interactive discourse and stressed their application in
communicative approaches to pronunciation learning and teaching.
1.2 Segmental Features
According to Seferoglu (2005), segmental aspects of the sound
system include individual vowels and consonants. Because segmental phonology is
relatively more easily explained and taught than the supra-segmental features
(Coniam, 2002), some studies focus on studying segmental phonology in
preference to suprasegmental features. Segmental features relate to sounds at
the micro level. They include specific sounds within words (for example, l as
in lamp, r as in ramp, a as in hat). The
sound systems of consonants, vowels or their combinations are called phonemes.
Phonemes are sounds that, when pronounced incorrectly, can change the meaning
of the word (Burns, 2003). Compare the changes of meaning in: pet pat lamp ramp
about abort Consonant sounds can be voiced (a part of the mouth is closed and
the air behind it is released suddenly – for example, v as in van,
b as in bun) – or unvoiced (air is pushed through a narrow part
of the mouth – for example, f as in fan, th as in thin).
Vowel sounds are articulated as single sounds. They can be short (for example,
ae as in cat) or long (a as in cart). Diphthongs are two vowel
sounds put together (for example, ei as in Kate or as in boy)
(Burns, 2003).
2.
Factors Affecting the Learning of English Pronunciation
In this section, the researcher mentions some of the important
factors that affect the learning of pronunciation. They are as follows:
2.1 Attitude
It seems as though some learners are more adept at acquiring good
pronunciation. Even within one homogenous classroom, there is often a large
discrepancy among the pronunciation ability of the students. This phenomenon
has lead many researchers to study the personal characteristics of the learners
that contribute to their success in foreign language acquisition. In a study on
pronunciation accuracy of university students studying intermediate Spanish as
a foreign language, Elliot (1995) found that subjects’ attitude toward
acquiring native or near-native pronunciation as measured by the Pronunciation
Attitude Inventory (PAI), was the principal variable in relation to target
language pronunciation. In other words, if the students were more concerned
about their pronunciation of the target language, they tended to have better
pronunciation of the target allophones (Elliot, 1995). This study echoed
earlier research done by Suter (1976), which found that students who were ―more
concerned‖ about their pronunciation (p. 249) had better pronunciation of
English as a Second Language (Elliot, 1995). When discussing the attitude of
the second language learners in relation to their pronunciation and second
language acquisition, it is necessary to note the work done by Schumann (1986)
on acculturation and its role in the process of language learning. His
acculturation model defines that learners will acquire the target language to
the degree that they acculturate (Celce-Murcia, et al., 1996). According to
Schumann, acculturation refers to a learner’s openness to a target culture as
well as a desire to be socially integrated in the target culture. His research
(1976, 1986) on acculturation examines the social and psychological integration
of immigrant students as a predictor of the amount of English language they
acquire and use (Tong, 2000). Schumann maintains that the acquisition and use
of English is a measure of the degree to which students have become
acculturated to the host culture. Acculturation, according to Schumann (1986),
refers to the social and psychological contact between members of a particular
group and members of the target culture. The more interaction (i.e.,
social/psychological closeness) a group has with the target group, the more
opportunities will result for the group to acquire and use English. Conversely,
less interaction (i.e., social/psychological distance) results in less
acquisition and use of English. The group's amount of contact with the target
culture has an effect on the amount of English acquired and used. Sparks and
Glachow’s work (1991) on personality found similar results. They state that students
with motivation to learn with positive attitudes towards the target language
and its speakers were more successful than were students with less positive
attitudes. They refer to Gardner and Lambert’s research on motivation wherein
two types are highlighted. The first type of motivation is instrumental, which
is motivation to learn the L2 for the value of linguistic achievement. Second
is integrative motivation, which describes the desire to continue learning
about the second language culture. According to Gardner and Lambert students
with integrative motivation would be expected to work harder to develop
communication skills in the second language because they are more likely than
their less interested counterparts to seek out native speakers of the language.
2.2 Motivation and Exposure
Along with age at the acquisition of a language, the learner’s
motivation for learning the language and the cultural group that the learner
identifies and spends time determine whether the learner will develop native-like
pronunciation. Research has found that having a personal or professional goal
for learning English can influence the need and desire for native-like
pronunciation (Marinova-Todd et al., 2000; Masgoret & Gardner, 2003;
Bernaus, Masgoret, Gardner, & Reyes, 2004; Gatbonton et al., 2005). The
review by Marinova- Todd et al. (2000) of research on adult acquisition of
English concluded that adults can become highly proficient, even native-like
speakers of second languages, especially if motivated to do so. Moyer (2007)
found that experience with and positive orientation to the language appears to
be important factors in developing native-like pronunciation. In a study of
learners of Spanish, Shively (2008) found that accuracy in the production of
Spanish is significantly related to age at first exposure to the language,
amount of formal instruction in Spanish, residence in a Spanish-speaking
country, amount of out-of-class contact with Spanish, and focus on
pronunciation in class. Therefore, in addition to focusing on pronunciation and
accent in class, teachers should encourage learners to speak English outside
the classroom and provide them with assignments that structure those
interactions.
2.3 Instruction
Foreign language instruction generally focuses on four main areas
of development: listening, speaking reading and writing. Foreign language
curricula emphasize pronunciation in the first year of study as it introduces
the target language’s alphabet and sound system, but rarely continues this
focus past the introductory level. Lack of emphasis on pronunciation
development may be due to a general lack of fervor on the part of the second
language acquisition researchers, second language teachers and students, that
pronunciation of a second language is not very important (Elliot, 1995).
Pennington (1994) maintains that pronunciation which is typically viewed as a
component of linguistic rather than conversational fluency, is often regarded
with little importance in a communicatively oriented classroom (Elliot, 1995).
According to Elliot (1995), teachers tend to view pronunciation as the least
useful of the basic language skills and therefore they generally sacrifice
teaching pronunciation in order to spend valuable class time on other areas of
language. Or maybe, teachers feel justified neglecting pronunciation believing
that for adult foreign language learners, it is more difficult to attain target
language pronunciation skills than other facets of second language acquisition.
Teachers just do not have the background or tools to properly teach
pronunciation and therefore it is disregarded (Elliot, 1995). Teachers have
taught what they thought was pronunciation via repetition drills on both a
discrete word or phrase level, or give the students the rules of pronunciation
like the vowel in a CVC pattern, when given an e at the end, says its name. For
example, when an e is added to the word bit (CVC) the
pronunciation of the ―short i‖, becomes long and therefore ―says its name‖.
This type of instruction is meant to help students with decoding words for the
purpose of reading rather than pronunciation. For example, students are rarely
given information about the differences between fricatives and non-fricative
continuants, or the subtleties between the trilled or flapped /r/ between
Spanish and English (Elliot, 1995). This particular information is often left
up to the students to attain on their own. Researchers have explored the
question of whether explicit instruction helps these second language learners.
Such studies have generated inconsistent results. Suter (1976) reported an
insignificant relationship between formal pronunciation and students’
pronunciation of English as a Second Language (Elliot, 1995). Murakawa (1981)
found that, with 12 weeks of phonetic instruction, adult L2 learners of English
can improve their allophonic articulation (Elliot, 1995). Nuefield and
Scheiderman (1980) reported that adults are able to achieve near native fluency
and it can be developed in a relatively short time without serious disruption
to the second language teaching program with adequate pronunciation instruction
(Elliot, 1995). It is necessary to note at this point that even though there
seems to be quite a contradiction in the range of results presented, the
diversity of those results may be due to the differing designs of the
particular experiments. Some pronunciation studies focus specifically on the
instruction of supra-segmental. Derwing, Munro and Wiebe (1997) conducted
research in which ESL learners who had been studying for an average of ten
years, participated in a speaking improvement course that focused on the
supra-segmental features of pronunciation (e.g. stress, rhythm, intonation).
Thirty-seven native listeners transcribed speech samples (true/false sentences)
taken at the beginning of a 12-week course in order to assess the learners’
intelligibility. Each sample was rated in order of comprehensibility and degree
of accentedness. In the end, there was a significant improvement in the
intelligibility, and better ratings over time of comprehensibility and
accentedness. They showed that 30 language learners could alter their
pronunciation in a reading task (Derwing & Rossiter, 2003).
2.4 Exposure to Target Language
When we speak of the exposure that a learner has to the target
language, it may come in the form of their current day-to-day life as well as
the amount of prior instruction a learner received in the target language.
According to the language learning theories, learners acquire language
primarily from the input they receive and they must receive large amounts of
comprehensible input before they are required to speak. Adult learners may have
little opportunity to surround themselves with the native target language
input. Whereas children who are possibly in English-speaking schools for hours
during the day, their adult counterparts are likely to live and work in what
these theorists call ―linguistic ghettos‖ where they again have little
meaningful exposure to the target language thus inhibiting their acquisition.
Learning a new language and speaking it is especially difficult for foreign
language learners because effective oral communication requires the ability to
use the language appropriately in a variety of interactions (Shumin, 1997).
Verbal communication also affects the supra-segmental features of speech such
as pitch, stress and intonation. Such features are often not learned from
reading a textbook or dictionary. Beyond the supra-segmental features, are the
non-linguistic elements involved in language such as gestures, body language,
and facial expressions that carry so much meaning yet are not learned through
explicit instruction, but rather through sheer experience in a language and
culture. Due to minimal exposure to the target language and contact with native
speakers, adult English language learners often do not acquire a native-like
level of pronunciation, regarding fluency, control of idiomatic expressions and
cultural pragmatics (gestures, body language, and facial expressions) (Shumin,
1997).
3.
Audiovisual
Audio-visual is
a combination of two words : audio referring to that which we can hear and
visual referring to that which we can see. Audiovisual technology can change
the teacher-learning situation if various types of visual aids are employed in
teaching English in the fourth grade. Audio visual must be something either
audible or visual, or both. The common types of audible aids are the spoken
word, recognizable sound effects, and music. The most frequently used visual
aids are people, pictures, cartoons, graphics, maps, the printed word, and
three-dimensional models. When we talk about a motion picture projector or a
blackboard, we are talking about the means of will be presented. Audio-visual
materials can be divided into those which present the aids in their original
form and those which reproduce the original form.
Conclusion
Pronunciation can be one of the most difficult parts of a language
for students of Junior High School to master. All learners can do well in
learning the pronunciation of a foreign language if the teacher and learner
participate together in the total learning process and by using audiovisual to
teach pronunciation will be fun because by audiovisual the students can be seen
and also heard and the picture made them interest. Success can be achieved if
each has set individual teaching and learning goals. Pronunciation must be
viewed as more than correct production of phonemes: it must be viewed in the
same light as grammar, syntax, and discourse that is an important part of
communication. The learner must also become part of the learning process,
actively involved in their own learning. The content of the course should be
integrated into the communication class, with the content emphasizing the
teaching of suprasegmentals, linking pronunciation with listening
comprehension, and allowing for meaningful pronunciation practice.
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