LANGUAGE FOCUS: THE VOCABULARY SHIFT

A distinctive feature of academic writing style is choosing the more formal  alternative  when  selecting  a  verb,  noun,  or  other  part  of speech.

Verbs

English  often  has  two  (or  more)  choices  to  express  an  action  or occurrence.  The  choice is often between a phrasal or prepositional verb (verb + preposition) and a single verb, the latter with Latinate origins.  Often  in lectures  and  other instances  of everyday  spoken English,  the verb  +  preposition is used; however,  for written academic style, the preferred choice is a single verb wherever possible.

This  is  one  of the  most  dramatic  stylistic  shifts  from  informal  to formal style.

Researchers looked at the way strain builds up around a fault.

(less formal style)

Researchers observed the way strain accumulates around a fault.

(academic style)

Choose  a  verb  from  the  list  that  reduces  the  informality  of each sentence. Note that you may need to add tense to the verb from the list.

assist      reduce       create          investigate       raise

establish       increase        determine         fluctuate         eliminate

1.  Expert Systems can help out the user in the diagnosis of problems.

2.  This program was set up to improve access to medical care.

3.  Research expenditures have gone up to nearly $350 million.

4.  The use of optical character readers (OCRs) should cut down the number of problems with the U.S. mail service.

5.  Researchers have found out that this drug has serious side effects.

6.  Building a nuclear power plant will not get rid of the energy problem completely.

7.  Researchers have been looking into this problem for 15 years now.

8.  This issue was brought up during the investigation.

9.  Engineers can come up with better designs using CAD.

10.  The emission levels have been going up and down.

Reduce  the  informality  of each  sentence  by  substituting  a  single verb for the one in italics.

1.  The implementation of computer-integrated-manufacturing (CIM) has brought about some serious problems.

2.  The process should be done over until the desired results are achieved.

3.  Plans are being made to come up with a database containing detailed environmental information for the region.

4.  Subtle changes in the earth's crust were picked up by these new devices.

5.  Proposals to construct new nuclear reactors have met with great resistance from environmentalists.

Nouns and Other Parts of Speech

English has  a very rich vocabulary derived from many languages. Because of this, there may be more than one way to express an idea. You should strive to choose words that are less informal in nature and also precise. In lectures, you will likely heartless formal speech; however, in writing you should use a more formal form if one exists.

Which  of the  underlined  words  would  be  more  suitable  for  an  academic  paper?

1.  The government has made good I considerable progress in solving environmental problems.

2.  We got I obtained encouraging results.

3.  The  results  of a  lot of I  numerous  different projects  have been pretty  good  I  encouraging.

4.  A loss  of jobs  is  one  of the  things  that  will happen  I consequences  if the  process  is  automated.

Supply  a  more  academic  word  or  phrase  for  the  one  underlined  in each  sentence.

5.  The reaction of the officials was sort of negative.

6.  The  economic outlook is  mighty  nice.

7.  The  future  of Federal funding is  up  in  the  air.

8.  America's  major automakers  are  planning to get  together on the research  needed  for  more  fuel  efficient  cars.

Language Focus: Formal Grammar and Style

The followings are  some nonvocabulary-related recommendations for maintaining  a  formal  academic  writing  style.

1. Avoid contractions.

Export  figures  won't improve until the economy is  stronger. →

Export  figures  will  not  improve  until  the  economy is  stronger.

2.  Use  the  more  appropriate formal negative forms.

not . . . any —> no

not. . . much —> little

not . . . many —> few

The  analysis  didn't yield  any  new  results.  —>

The  analysis yielded no  new results.

The  government  didn't  allocate  much  funding  for  the  program.  —>

The  government  allocated  little  funding  for  the  program.

This problem doesn't have many viable solutions. —>This  problem  has few  viable  solutions.

3.  Limit  the  use  of  "run  on"  expressions,  such  as  "and  so  forth" and "etc."

These semiconductors can be used in robots, CD players, etc. —>

These  semiconductors can be used in robots,  CD  players, and other electronic  devices.

4. Avoid addressing the reader as "you" (except, of course, if you are writing a textbook).

You can see the results in Table 1. -»

The results can be  seen in Table  1.

5.  Limit the use of direct questions.

What can be done to lower costs? —>

We now need to consider what can be done to lower costs, or

We now need to consider how costs may be lowered.

6.  Place adverbs within the verb.

Adverbs  often  are  placed  midposition  rather  than  in  the  initial  or final  positions. 

In  informal  English,  adverbs  often  occur as  clauses at the beginning or end of sentences.

Then the solution can be discarded. —*

The  solution  can then  be  discarded.

The blood is withdrawn slowly. —*

The  blood  is slowly  withdrawn.

FLOW

Consider the following passages.  Underline the  parts  in passage  b that differ from passage a.  Why does b have better "flow" than a?

1.           Lasers have found widespread application in medicine.  Lasers play  an  important  role  in  the  treatment  of eye  disease  and the prevention  of blindness.  The eye is ideally suited for laser surgery.  Most of the eye tissue is transparent.  The frequency and focus of the laser beam can be adjusted according to the absorption of the tissue.  The beam "cuts" inside the eye with minimal damage to the surrounding tissue—even the tissue between the laser and the incision.  Lasers are effective in treating some causes of blindness.  Other treatments are not. The  interaction  between  laser  light  and  eye  tissue  is  not  fully understood.

2.           Lasers have found widespread application in medicine.  For example, they play an important role in the treatment of eye disease and the prevention of blindness.  The eye is ideally suited for laser surgery because most of the eye tissue is transparent. Because  of this  transparency,  the  frequency  and  focus  of the  laser beam  can  be  adjusted  according to  the  absorption  of the tissue  so that  the  beam "cuts" inside the  eye with minimal damage  to the  surrounding tissue—even the  tissue between the  laser  and  the  incision.  Lasers are also more effective than other methods in treating some causes of blindness.  However, the interaction between laser light and eye tissue is not fully understood

Language Focus: Linking Words and Phrases

Linking  words  and  phrases  can  help  a  writer  maintain flow and establish clear relationships between ideas. Table 1 lists some of the more  common  linking  words  and  phrases,  arranged  according  to their  function  and  grammatical  use.  Sentence  connectors  raise  a small,  but  important  issue,  namely  punctuation.  The flowchart in figure  2  can help you  choose  appropriate  punctuation.

TABLE 1.   Linking Words and Phrases

	Subordinators	Sentence Connectors	Phrase Linkers
Addition		Furthermore, in  addition, moreover	in  addition to
Adversative	Although, even  though, despite  the  fact that	However, nevertheless	Despite, in spite of
Cause  and Effect	Because, since	Therefore, as  a  result, consequently, hence, thus*	because of, due to, as a result of
Clarification		in  other words, that  is, i.e.
Contrast	While, whereas	in  contrast, however, on  the  other hand, conversely	unlike
Illustration		for  example, for  instance
Intensification		on the contrary, as a matter of fact, in  fact

Punctuation depends on

the type of initiator in

the second clause.

Use a comma.

Conjunction and, but, or

Subordinator because, if, while  . . .

Use a comma.

Connector however, thus, also  . . .

Use a semicolon or period.

 

 Birds fly, but                            Birds fly;however,                          Birds fly, while

 fish  swim.                                  fish swim.                                    fish  swim.

If there is no second clause initiator (such as but, if, or hence),

punctuation depends on the type of clause being joined.

Nonfinite + Finite Use a comma. His theory being wrong, he lost the  argument.

Finite + Finite Use a semicolon. His theory was wrong; he lost the  argument.

Finite + Nonfinite Use a comma. He lost the argument, his theory being wrong

Edit the following passage by adding semicolons or commas where necessary.

¹Aluminum alloys are now more important in the automobile industry than ever before.  ² The  government  is  pressuring  the  industry  to  produce  cars  of high  quality  and  with  high  fuel  efficiency  hence  car  makers  are  replacing  traditional  iron-based alloys with aluminum alloys.  ³Aluminum alloy parts are typically one-third  to  one-half the  weight  of those  made  with  steel  as  a result cars with all aluminum parts use  approximately 50% less fuel than those with steel components. ⁴Although most aluminum alloys are soft they can have a higher tensile strength than steel. ⁵Adequate alloy and solution treatment can increase their tensile strength thus resulting in a vehicle with good impact capacity.

Supply linking words  or  phrases  that  enhance  the flow of the  passage.  Look carefully at the punctuation to help you make an appropriate  choice.

1Many modern artists are using computers in their work because these machines enable the  artist to be more creative.  2 Some  artists  believe  computers  will  gain  in  popularity;____________________ , others feel they will have at best a fleeting presence in the art world.  3The computer is not a conventional art tool exactly like a brush, pencil, or hammer; ____________________ , it  is  a  tool  that  provides  greater  flexibility.  4 ____________________the use  of computers for artistic purposes  seems somewhat  unusual,  researchers  believe  their  use  will  indeed become  more  widespread  in  the  next  century.   5 Changes  can be   made   quickly   and   easily   when   artists   use   computers.

6____________________  ,  copying portions  of a  painting, drawing,  or  musical  composition  can  be  done  with  a keystroke, ____________________saving  the   artist  considerable time. 7____________________  some initial resistance, the artistic  community  is  beginning  to  realize  that  technology  can indeed  play  a role  in  creativity.